Weimar Republic 1918-33: great culture, great democracy

Pres Paul von Hindenburg

Wiki

The usual image of the Weimar Republic was one of political instability, economic crisis and cultural decadence. That always seemed ridiculous to me since this republic was Germany’s new system of democratic government after the Second Reich collapsed. The name was chosen because Berlin was still in the midst of revolution when the Imperial period ended in 1918. So the first Assembly for the new Republic was held in Jan 1919 in Weimar instead.

My best German era started when Weimar Republic politics became democratic, social freedoms arrived and vibrant artistic movements blossomed. The tricky cond­itions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles and economic instab­ility only made governmental support more urgent.

Intellectual and political democracy
The Weimar era was noted for these amazing successes:
1.Political power was rested in the Reichstag
2.Universal voting for men & women made for a genuine democracy
3.unemployment insurance was introduced
4.the working week was reduced from 50 hours down to 46.
5.free speech was guaranteed.
6.freedom of religion was guaranteed
7.sciences were promoted in the universities and scientists supported at work

Arts The Bauhaus Academy opened in 1919 where expressionist artists overcame the rigid traditions of the main art academies; the new style which flourished in the German-speaking nations was characterised by distorted forms, sharp colour contrasts, dark shadows, weird angles and distorted id­ent­it­ies. Bauhaus was great for young architects when a new wave of designers foll­ow­ed Walter Grop­ius (1883-1969) instead of traditional or cl­ass­ical architects. It foll­owed a new post-war Western spirit when cultural modernity would be Germany’s reparations to the world. Did it reflect the comp­lic­ated German society when the learned Weimar Rep­ublic suff­er­ed high inflation?

A woman exchanges vegetables for baskets of money during the hyperinflation of 1923 

Law & Liberty

In Berlin post-WW1, Christian Schad became an model of New Objectivity,  painting cool, sharp portraits of his social milieu. He painted the androgynous Sonja, with fashionable cloth­es, cropped hair and smoking Camel cigarettes, all attributes of the independent New Woman. New Object­ivity spread through various cities, creating cynical depictions of injured war veter­ans, jobless workers and war profiteers. They portrayed an scarred society, denouncing the devastating effects of WW1.

Many works railed against both capitalism and the effects of WW1 on society. Otto Dix’s anti-militarist The Skat Players 1920 marked his trans­ition to the social­ly critical New Realism, depicting 3 hideously disfigured office­rs in a café playing skat card game. And Dix completed 4 panels in a triptych, like a church altarpiece, depicting horrid morb­idity with putrefied flesh, gangrene and death. Was Dix reflecting the German nationalism that was surging in the more tense political atmosphere in the Depression? His critics certainly hated his anti-German, hypercritical views of WW1 and post-war society.

George Grosz, 

Eclipse of the Sun, 1926
Weimar Republic

Films Through the 1920s Fritz Lang made ambitious films, includ­ing the al­l­egorical melo­drama Destiny (1921) and Dr Mabuse The Gambler (1922). In 1924 he first travelled to film companies in New York and Hollywood. Lang’s first project back in Germany was the futuristic, expensive master-piece Metropolis (1927). The plot showed a repressive society with exp­loited workers, lazy rulers and emotionless robots. Lang created his vis­ually detailed films where he blended shots of miniatures with live action. After a crime film Spies in 1928, Lang returned to science fict­ion for Woman in the Moon (1929). M (1931) was a German thriller, famous for its horrifying light­ing and sound. It was Fritz Lang’s first sound film, starring a chill­ing Peter Lorre, Lang’s greatest global success.

Wedekind’s early play formed the basis for Viennese director G W Pabst's famous silent film Pand­ora's Box in 1929 star­ring Louise Brooks as Lulu, a masterpiece of C20th opera. Fritz Kohn-Kortner was an Austrian stage-actor who became one of the era's most famous silent actors. Talkies arrived in late 1929, producing a flourish of German film. Sound production and distribution were quickly taken up and soon Germany had 3,800 cinemas with sound. G.W Pabst's version of Bertolt Brecht's The Three-penny Opera 1931 and Lang's M 1931 were landmark talkies.

Berlin jazz girls with mandolins at a 1929 cabaret

A Midsummer Night’s Dream

Cabaret were nightclubs where patrons sat at tables, entertained by singers, dancers and comedians on a stage like Moulin Rouge. Berlin’s first cabaret nightclub (1901) was during the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm II when German cabarets were not permitted to perform lewd humour, bawdy dancing or political satire. But by 1920s, Berlin became known for its high living and vibrant urban-life. Some cabarets were patronised by gay men and lesbians; once forced to conceal their sexuality, they used the cabaret scene to openly display it. Right wingers were horrified.

So what was the impact of Weimar democracy and cultural dominance? The Weimar Years: Rise and Fall 1918-1933 by Frank McDonough suggested that finding a detailed narrative history of Weimar Germany was tricky. Other writers focused on specific aspects of the era where the rise of Adolf Hitler dominated history. Fortunately The Weimar Years was NOT a history of Hitler’s rise to power. 

“The first important man was Chancellor and Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann, the man McDonough considered the only politician who could have saved German democracy. Stresemann’s diplomatic skills inspired political compromise within the Republic, while his peaceful foreign policy vision triumphed at Locarno, sparking a new spirit of friendship towards Germany and winning him the Nobel Peace Prize before his death in 1929”. I had never heard this mentioned.

“The second was President Paul von Hindenburg, widely seen in the 1920s as a hero. Initially non-partisan, the old monarchist and ex-military leader soon reverted to the right. From 1930 he governed in accordance with his right-wing preferences and gave little thought to the views of the elected Reichstag. But as McDonough argued, the blame did not lie with individuals: there were structural issues with Weimar democracy baked into its constitution, Article 48 of which enabled Hindenburg to disregard the Reichstag. Proportional representation made coalition government difficult. Issues with the system, more than the economic misery, inspired Germans to vote for the Nazis. So the mortal damage was dealt by Hindenburg.

Thank you to Frank McDonough for an excellent history book.

Migrants welcome to Australia - Bonegilla

Bonegilla is a rural area on the western shore of Lake Hume in N.E Victoria. The nearest large township is Wodonga Vic, 9 km to the west and c12 km from Albury NSW, on the southern bank of Murray River, the border between the two states. Bonegilla primary school opened in 1876, a railway connection (1889) to Wodonga, and 2 hotels in 1910.

  huts in Bonegilla Rd, Bonegilla

VHD

Children enjoy the games and the fresh air

Albury City Council

Children in primary school

Albury City Council

In 1940 a large army camp and military hospital were built at Bonegilla and a huge ordnance base was built nearby, the camp being used to train troops during the war. The hospital cared for them and for wounded soldiers returned from the battle fields. The ordnance base stored and supplied military equipment and vehicles. This was a convenient location for such activities because there was a change in the railway-gauge between the two states. 

 During WW2 a military camp was established at Bonegilla for the training of infantry and bomb disposal personnel. Some Italian prisoners-of-war were also held there, and after the war some Australian and American prisoners-of-war from Japanese prisons were brought there. In 1947 the military camp was acquired for a reception centre for migrants, mostly from Europe. There were 24 camp blocks, comprised of 800+ buildings.

It was post-WW2 when millions of war-damaged people seeking peace looked to Australia. An army camp at Bonegilla was transformed into a migrant reception and training centre where new arrivals lived while they were processed and allocated jobs.

Bonegilla Migrant Reception & Training Centre received 300,000+ migrants from 30 nations during 1947-71, opened to provide temporary accommodation for newly arrived migrants. In the years after, more camps or hostels were set up around Australia to meet the demand of increasing numbers. Most migrants stayed in these for 4-6 weeks, although some stayed for months and even years.

So the Bonegilla Army Camp was re-used as a reception and training centre for the first contingents of displaced persons who Australia admitted under an agreement with the International Refugee Organisation, Europeans who couldn’t return to their former countries post-war. My Czech parents-in-law and their children sat in a Displaced Persons’ Camp in Austria, until they were accepted in a refugee camp in rural NSW.

Many migrants had not socialised since WW2 started in 1939.

Group activities were greatly enjoyed

Albury City Council

From 1960 it was retitled as the Bonegilla Reception Centre and took in more migrants and refugees, largely from European countries. Altogether to 1971 when it closed, Bonegilla proved to be the largest and longest-lasting reception centre in post-war Australia, at a time when the economy was growing rapidly. These new arrivals changed the face of Australian society; they and their families helped shaped Australia.

The Reception and Training Centre consisted of 24 blocks. It had its own churches, banks, sporting fields, cinema, hospital, police station and railway platform. Today, Block 19 is all that remains of the original site so the Bonegilla Migrant Experience Bonegilla is an excellent tour. 

Block 19 today

Big4 Holiday Parks

In May 1990, Block 19 was put on the Victorian Heritage Register. As a registered place of special value to future generations, it is protected from any major change. In 2002, it became a commemorative place and tourism venue. In Dec 2007, it was included on the National Heritage List as a place of outstanding heritage value to the nation. A plaque declared the old reception centre was a symbol of post-war migration which transformed Australia’s economy, society and culture. Block 19 is now a special place which attracts visitors wanting to reflect on the experience of being a migrant; and was recognised as a place with powerful connections for many people here and a symbol of post-war migration which helped change Australia's economy, society and culture.

In the middle of sunny fields and on the banks of Australia's greatest river lies Bonegilla, the reception camp established by the Australian Government for European citizens. The travellers spend their first weeks in their new homeland here in order to become acquainted with its customs and thereby ease their passage into the Australian way of life. (Ad encouraging Displaced Persons to come to Australia).

Between 1947-71 Bonegilla Migrant Reception and Training Centre was the first home in Australia for the migrants. It was the largest operating migration reception centre. It is of national significance as a place associated with and demonstrating a defining change in Australia's immigration policy following the war.

For years Albury City has been collecting objects owned by former residents of the migrant reception centre; things that people brought from their homeland to give them comfort, photos, kitchen items, toys, books and clothing. Albury actively collects written memories from Bonegilla migrants.

The 1,295 oral, written and pictorial records in the Bonegilla Collection at the Albury Library clarify post-war immigration policies/procedures that changed the national origins and size of Australia’s population. These photographs, documents and memorabilia, provide insights into post-WW2 migration and refugee occurrences. The collection displays immigration policies and procedures that changed the composition and size of the Australian population, and thus transformed the nation economically, socially and culturally. To locate and identify a immigration record, including individual Bonegilla cards held by the National Archives, use the Making Australia Home programme.

In Dec 1987, a Back-to-Bonegilla day was held to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the migrant reception centre opening. Another was held in 1997. Numerous published histories and reminiscences followed.

Most of the migrants and refugees who passed through Bonegilla were drawn from non-English speaking European countries but with diverse arrival and settlement experiences. Some migrants recalled arriving lonely, unsure of where they were going and what they'd be doing. Others saw Bonegilla as a place of hope, symbolic of a new start. Even more importantly, the shift from prioritising Anglo-Celtic sources helped change political and social expectations, and thus the cultural diversity of Australia.

The Reception and Training Centre consisted of 24 blocks. It had its own churches, banks, sporting fields, cinema, hospital, police station and railway platform. Today, Block 19 is all that remains of the original site so the Bonegilla Migrant Experience.

The reception centre was temporary home for 320,000+ migrants. Some had short stays, but others remained there for a year or more, often because of non-recognition of their overseas qualifications. Disturbances in 1961, mainly caused by unemployed migrants who expected better food, climate and job prospects 15 years after the war, resulted in police action which fizzled out and migrants were transferred to hostels in metropolitan Melbourne. During that time a primary school (1952-71) managed changing student populations and many languages.

The arrow points to Bonegilla, half way between Sydney and Melbourne

Read Histories of Controversy: Bonegilla Migrant Centre by Alexandra Dellios, 2017 revealing the centre's other, more difficult history that included control, deprivation, slow job locating and dismal food.

Visit architecture in gorgeous Fez.

Fez Carpet market

Bob Cromwell

Let me examine some of the connections between Morocco and Europe I was familiar with. Visitors to the Paros Gallery in Greece should see the Sèvres Imperial Hunting tea service 1812, commissioned by Napoleon as a gift his second wife Empress Marie-Louise. The porcelain and silver gilt cups, saucers and pots each have an individual hunting scene, painted by French artist Jean Francois Robert. Each object slotted into a Morocco leather box, so servants could carry the porcelain wherever the courtiers wanted. The exhibition Napoleon: Revolution to Empire even came to Australia.

                                                  

In 1882 Englishman William Quilliam went to Southern France to recover from stress. Then he decided to cross the Mediterranean to North Africa, to visit Morocco and Algeria. He had ?nurtured a quiet interest in Islam before, but it was in North Africa that his lure to Islam became public. He converted formerly, calling himself Abdullah. Quilliam then accused Prime Minister William Gladstone of wilfully ignoring Christian crimes against Muslims. Fortunately Quilliam received support from his Islamic leaders abroad. He was made the Sheikh of Britain/leader of British Muslims by the last Ottoman emperor and was honoured by the Sultan Shah of Persia. But aggravation of Liverpool’s Muslim community eventually forced Liverpool’s mosque to close.

Claude Monet already admired those French artists who'd trav­elled to create Orientalist subject matter. Especially Eugène Dela­croix, the artist whose colours were influenced by visiting Morocco in 1832. Monet hoped a posting to Algeria would enable him to study the special light, subject matter and colour  that could never be found in France.

                                                          

Riad Fes, once a beautiful palatial home, was restored as a stunning hotel

Holiday Architects

What caught Viennese artist Rudolf Ernest’s interest was Orientalist art de­pict­ing the imagined repr­es­entation of the East by European artists, not by locals. Ernst’s Orientalist era began in 1885 when he travelled to Spain, Morocco and Tunisia. There he was able to sketch and ph­oto­graph the lo­cals’ daily life so these im­ages would later become colourful canv­as­es and int­er­iors. This was a major turning point for Ernest who loved colourful, exotic Orient­alism, espec­ially Islamic mosques and harem scenes.

In 1912, Australian artist Hilde Rix left to study in London & Paris, and enjoyed spending long periods in Tangier Morocco. There the colour and light, different from Northern France, reminded her of Australia. She championed the diverse culture of Morocco, carefully recording the public life of the market place, especially the role of women in it. Staying at Tangier's famous Hotel Villa de France at the same time as Henri Matisse, she depicted some of his sites and models.

Rix's drawings and paintings of Morocco added to her fame! A large painting was shown at Salon des Artistes Francais 1911 and many works were included in exhibitions conducted by Paris’ Societe des Peintres Orientalistes. In 1912 the French government bought her work Grand Marche Tangier, for the Luxembourg Gallery. Art articles about Rix appeared in The Studio, London and Notre Gazette Paris.

I’ve often referred to Orientalist art in this blog i.e by late C19th French, British, German and Russian artists who spent time in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Israel. See their paintings of  crafts, male guards and life in the harem. But in my blog there were few references to Orientalist architecture. So I asked my late son, a travel agent in Israel, where in Morocco his clients loved most.

Bab Bou Jeloud, ornate city gate in Fes el Bali, the old city of Fez

visitsights

The historic city of Fez, Morocco’s cultural gem, is a city that weaves the nation’s past and present, providing a fascinating look into the country’s traditions. Wander through the winding streets of Fes el-Bali and admire the architectural splendours of its madrasas; let eyes absorb the vibrant atmosphere, indulge in the sights, sounds and flavours of this special city, and let Fez fill their memories.

In North Morocco, Fez witnessed the nation’s rich heritage and vibrant culture. With winding streets, great architecture and old traditions, Fez invites travellers to immerse themselves in the 1000-year history. This city served as the capital of Morocco for several dynasties and remains a centre of learning, craftsmanship and religious devotion. 

Fez Medina

Tripadvisor

The historic Fez el-Bali Medina is a UNESCO World Heritage site which hasn’t changed much. Explore the derbs/narrow winding streets and examine the architecture of the ancient buildings. Discover traditional Moroccan riads/guest houses, bustling markets and hidden wonderful Chouara Tanneries, where leather has long been dyed using traditional methods.

 

Chouara Tanneries
Tripadvisor

Visit the prestigious Al-Qarawiyyin University, founded in the C9th by Fatima al-Fihri. Recognised as the oldest continuously operating university in the world, this educational institution played a vital role in the community’s intellectual development. Non-Muslims stay out of the prayer area, but can admire the architectural grandeur of the university’s courtyards and library.

Bou Inania Madrasa is great Moroccan architecture. This C14th religious school displays intricate stucco carvings, mosaic tiles and a tranquil courtyard adorned with marble columns. See the detailed craftsmanship and appreciate the peace of this spiritual haven.

Experience the opulent C14th Attarine Medersa/theological college. Admire the intricately carved cedarwood doors, elegant zellij tilework and delicate plasterwork on the walls. The medersa shows the special craftsmanship of Moroccan artisans, taking visitors to an early era of artistic excellence.

See Nejjarine Museum of Wood Arts & Crafts. Housed in a well restored caravanserai/inn, it used to be for travelling merchants who stored and sold their goods below, and lodged on the floors above. Now the museum shows great examples of woodwork: intricately carved doors, ceilings and furniture with a beautiful, tiled fountain outside the entrance. The techniques and history here have shaped the city’s architectural landscape. Centred on a courtyard, the rooms display traditional artefacts eg craftsmen’s tools, prayer beads, chests and musical instruments. The rooftop cafe has great views over the medina.

Dar al-Makhzen is the royal palace of the King of Morocco

visitsights

Was Joseph Kennedy racist before/in WW2?

Patrick Joseph Ken­nedy (1858–1929) was the son of poor Irish im­migrants who married in Boston in 1849. Originally a saloon-owner in Boston who ex­pand­ed to own a whiskey importation business, Patrick Kennedy made a good living in al­co­hol, and became the first family member to enter local politics. When Prohib­ition became law in 1920, importers like Patrick were allowed to keep the stores of liquor that they held. In fact Prohib­ition only banned the manuf­acture, sale and transportation of liquor, not drinking it.

Patrick’s son, Joseph P Kennedy (1888-1969), had joined the prom­inent Hayden stock brokerage firm in 1919 as an expert dealing in the unreg­ulat­ed stock mar­ket then. Joseph demanded to be paid, not only in sal­ary and expen­ses, but in stock options. Af­t­er succeeding as a stock trader, Joseph Kennedy became the youngest US bank presid­ent at 25!

His fortune increased. While other major investors pumped money into the stock market, Kennedy knew that stocks were over­valued. He sold off most stock holdings pre-1929 Crash, and started shorting stocks, betting prices would go down. When many lost their homes on Black Tuesday, Kennedy walked away richer. Dodgy yes, but very clever.

When he left for Hollywood in the late 1920s, Joseph Kennedy bought a failing Hollywood movie studio and started pumping out cheap films. In 1928 Joseph Kennedy sold two of his small film studios, creating RKO Pictures. It was best known for allowing 24-year-old genius Orson Welles to make Citizen Kane, the film following treach­er­ous American magnate Charles Foster Kane.

Joe and Rose Kennedy, center, with their 8 children at Hyannis Port, Mass

Ted Kennedy was born a year later in 1932

John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum)

The huge money that the Kennedys made from alcohol remained. In 1933, when it was clear that Prohibition would be overturned, Joseph Kennedy used his already substantial wealth and polit­ical conn­ect­ions to ensure exc­l­usive contracts to import high-end Scottish spirits; they proved extremely lucrative. When Proh­ib­ition was lifted in Dec 1933, relieved Americans quickly bought up whiskey and gin. Note that when Joe Ken­nedy sold his liquor franchise a decade later, he earned $8.2 million ($100+ million today).

In 1932, multi million­aire Kennedy supported Franklin D Roosevelt in his bid for the Pres­id­ency. This was Joseph’s first major involvement in a national political campaign, to which he donated and raised large moneys.

Ken­n­edy began his short public service career in 1934 as the head of the Securities and Exchange Commis­sion under Pres Roose­velt. The ambitious Kennedy wanted something bigger eg Secretary of the Treasury. But Roosevelt knew the stubborn, foul-mouthed Kennedy probably wouldn’t follow orders, so he said no. When Kennedy later suggested an ambassadorship, Roos­e­velt reluctantly gave him the nod

Irish priest Father Charles Coughlin was the most influential Catholic spokesman on political and financial is­s­ues on radio. Originally a strong supp­orter of Roosevelt, in 1934 Coughlin broke with the pre­sident when Roosevelt bitterly opp­os­ed Coughlin's weekly anti-communist, anti-Semitic, far-right, anti–Federal Reserve, is­ol­ationist radio talks.

Roosevelt sent Kennedy and other prominent Irish Catholics to tone down Father Coughlin. But I cannot tell if A] Joe Ken­nedy sec­retly approved of Father Coughlin or B] Kennedy had any impact on Father Coughlin in any case. Only one report said that Joe Kennedy was given the position of Ambassador to Britain by President Roosevelt explicitly as a reward for silencing the inflammatory Catholic priest.

In 1938, war was looming in Europe. Hitler took Austria, and wanted Czechoslovakia. British PM Nev­il­le Chamberlain sought appeasement, as did Kennedy. Kennedy insisted that US invol­vement would lead to another Great Depression, or even utter devastation.

In May and June 1938, Kennedy had extensive discussions with the new German Ambassador to Britain, Herbert von Dirksen. In the midst of these un­ap­proved discussions, Kennedy advised von Dirksen that the President was “the victim of Jewish influence and was poorly informed re Germany’s philosophy, ambitions and ideals”. Dirksen reported to the State Secret­ary of the German Foreign Ministry that Kennedy was Germany's best friend in London.

In Nov, the persecution of German and Austrian Jews continued into Krist­allnacht. Kennedy continued to loudly advocate for appeasement, in London and at home, arguing that Britain would be destroyed other­wise. He tried to set up a personal meeting with Hitler, but it never materialised.

Joseph Kennedy, U.S ambassador to Britain, flanked by sons Joseph Jr (L) and John (R),

aboard an ocean liner,1938

Washington Post

Embassy aide Harvey Klemmer presented Kennedy’s summary of his anti-Jewish sentiment: “Individual Jews are alright, but as a race they stink. They spoil everything they touch. Look what the kikes did to the movies”. Even in May 1940, when Winston Churchill replaced Chamberlain, Kennedy’s dis­graceful victim-blaming continued.

Back in the USA in late 1940, a paranoid Kennedy blam­ed Jewish Hollywood and its anti-German propaganda for pushing America towards war. He also blamed the prob­lematic Jew-Media in New York and LA for trying to set a match to the fuse of the world”. Shortly after vaguely endorsing Roosev­elt’s third term on radio, Kennedy resigned.

Now we have to explain how Joseph Kennedy’s public behaviour could have been so appalling. Read David Nas­aw’s 2012 book, The Patriarch: The Remarkable Life and Tur­bulent Tim­es of Joseph P Kennedy. Nasaw took each criticism of Kennedy one at a time. Per­haps Joseph’s tactics did border on in­sider trading and market man­ipul­at­ion in the 1920s, but the unregulated market meant that Joseph wasn’t trading illegally. Ken­nedy became a multi-millionaire during the 1920s bull market and even wealthier by taking short posit­ions in 1929. Secondly Nasaw said there was no evidence whatsoever about Kennedy trad­ing in illicit liquor. Thirdly Nasaw didn’t think that Kennedy was very anti-Semitic; rather he was raised to believe cultural myths about Jews, Catholics and Prot­est­ants alike. Joe Kennedy did accept the idea that there was “something in the genetic makeup, in the blood of Jews that makes them sinis­t­er, evil and destructive of Christian morality.” But, said Nasaw, Kennedy bought into ancient anti-Semitic myths and scapegoating; he did not cross­ the line into actual racism. [The difference escapes me].

Pres Roosevelt congratulates Joseph P. Kennedy as the new ambassador to UK Jan 1938. 

Ass Justice Stanley Reed administered Kennedy’s oath.

Warfare History

However in 1944 Kennedy would still not say or write anything about the fate of European Jews. “The Jews themselves should pay less attention to advertising their racial problem, and more att­ention to solving it. It’s chiefly their fault now.” The victory over the Nazis in 1945 was celebrated by most people as the triumph of good over evil. But even then, Kennedy believed that victory over Hitler had cost too much and accomplished too little.

Felled by a deb­il­­itating stroke in 1961, Joe Kennedy body lived on for 8 years. He died in 1969.