Odessa: cultural architecture protected

Venice’s Teatro San Cassiano became the world's first public opera house in 1637. Soon, in the C17th & C18th, Central European opera houses had to be financed by rulers, nobles and wealthy people who used patronage of the arts for their own grand reputation. So the Russian Opera House in Odessa must have been a wonderful sight in Russia. Officially it was said to be at the intersection of history because it’s between Tchaikovsky Lane and Langeron St, while facing Richelieu St and de Ribas St. Each personality contributed to Odessa’s development. The first opera house, which opened in 1810, burned down in 1873 and reopened in 1887, was in Vienna Baroque style, an immediate city landmark. Performances included opera, ballet and concerts.

Opera House front

Opera House, National Academic Theatre

The National Academic Opera-Ballet Theatre was built in 1884-7 by Viennese architects Ferdinand Fellner & Hermann Helmer. The grand Viennese Baroque style was the first one built in Novorossiysk Port on the Black Sea where electric lighting and central heating were used.

What famous people were associated with the Odessa’s Opera House area? Count Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron (1763-1831) was born into a noble Parisian family. He was one of many French émigrés in Russian service, having his first war experience in the America’s War of Independence. He then served at Caracas and Saint Domingo in 1782-3, before being promoted in the French army to Colonel of the Armagnac Regiment in 1788. Langeron joined the Russian Army besieging the Ottoman Fortress of Izmail in 1790. He was awarded a Golden Sword for Courage, and he remained in the Russ-ian service for life. 

Armand du Plessis, 5th Duke of Richelieu (1766-1822) was born in Paris, a royalist who enlisted in the Kingdom of France’s army after the start of the French Revolution (1789). de Richelieu entered the Queen Marie Antoinette's Regiment of Dragoons in the storming of the Versailles Palace (1789). He became an officer of the Russian Imperial Army, and a Duke upon the death of his father in 1791.  He had a deep knowledge of economics and diplomacy, and promoted the role of trade for the nation's wel-fare. Under his regime, the discount bank, exchange, insurance company, customs district, commercial court & quarantine facility proudly grew. [The Duc's father had been a representative of the Kingdom of Spain to the Kingdom of Naples until 1816 and then an officer in the Russian Imperial Army 1772].

This may have helped him get appointed Governor of Odessa (1803-14). In Richelieu's governorship, he received royal permission to establish locally funded educational institutions in Odessa. de Richelieu's greatest claim to fame was establishing the  Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa in 1817, located on the corner of modern Langeron and de Ribas Sts.  Richelieu was supported by the newly created Ministry of Education (1802) and the National Educational Statutes (1803). In 1804 2 educational institutions were founded as Richelieu Lyceum in 1817, was a private institution of learning where the students were drawn primarily from the aristocracy and wealthy merchant families. Richelieu Lyceum became an institution of higher education and basis for today’s Odessa National Uni. 

French was the only academic language until 1820, when Russian lecturers joined the Lyceum and taught in Russian. Duc de Richelieu was the Governor of Odessa (1803-14), dying from cholera in 1831, and buried in Odessa’s Catholic Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin. 

He returned to France as a peer in the Bourbon Restoration (1814-30). Odessa became part of Ukraine in 1920 when the Red Army integrated it into the Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Union. And the Odessa Opera House was encircled by historically significant sites. The Auditorium was decorated in the playful late French Rococo. The ceiling, painted by Franz Leffler & restored by Mikhail Zandin after 1925 fire, was divided into 4 segments: medallions from Shakespeare's Hamlet, Midsummer Night's Dream, Winter's Tale and Twelfth Night. In the centre the large chandelier was beautiful.

The Opera House in Odessa endorsed their political, educational and cultural ambition, and social position. Walk down Richelieu St and see the gorgeous front view of The Opera House, then de Ribas St and Tchaikovsky Lane, and the façade faces Langeron St. José de Ribas was Governor of Odessa (1794-7), José de Ribas (1749-1800), Louis de Langeron (1763-1831) and Duc de Richelieu (1766-1822) were political leaders of late C18th and early C19th.

Holy Assumption Cathedral

The area surrounding the Odessa Opera and Ballet Theatre is rich in cultural institutions, protected by UNESCO. National Scientific Library (1829) in Pasteur St was the first public library in Ukraine. Its opening marked the beginning of the foundation of public libraries in all cities of Russian Empire. Today it is the leading socio-cultural centre in Ukraine and the research, methodological and coord-ination centre on library science, bibliography and document management. And see Odessa Literary Museum, Odessa Philharmonic and Musical Comedy Theatre. 

The area also features other cultural heritage sites, although some were recently attacked. Holy Assumption Cathedral in Odessa, founded in 1855 is one of the largest churches in southern Ukraine. From 1936 on it was the cathedral church of the Odessa diocese. It was consecrated by the ​​Archbishop of Kherson and Odessa. The 2-storey church was built at the expense of the merchants Jacob and Nikolai Cherepennikovs according to the project of the architect L. Otton. The height of the temple together with the bell tower is 56 m and the capacity is 5-6 thousand parishioners.

The temple consists of two sections: upper and lower, with three altars in each. The lower church was consecrated in the name of St. Nicholas, its southern chapel in the name of three Saints: St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory the Theologian and St. John Chrysostom.

Odessa National Research Library was the second public library in Russian Empire, founded in1829. Five millions books, periodicals, documents. This museum of old books is an architectural monument in its own right.

National Research Library

Medical University Library

Archaeology Museum

Stolyarsky Music Lyceum

rebuilt after WW2 bombing

Wiki

The stage door to the Opera House in Odessa is on Tchaikovsky Lane. The service entrance is at the back of the opera house. Pyotr Tchaikovsky was born into a Russian noble family (1840-93) composed first symphonic piece, an overture for Aleksandr Ostrovsky’s (1823-1886) drama, The Storm, which many critics considered to be his best symphony (1877-8) premiere of final opera Iolanthe (1892) visited and performed as conductor of his works in Odessa (1893). He died in St Petersburg.

A half of my family lived next to Odessa, but I promise I will never claim these cultural treasures for my grandchildren :)

medieval Barcelona, Jewish sites, Christian control

Barcelona is a loved cultural destination by international trav­ellers – in 2017, c32 million tourists visited the city of 1.6 million residents. When I was a tour­ist there, I loved it.

From C9th until the final Spanish Expulsion in 1492, Jews flourished spiritually and intellectually. Despite Barcelona never becoming the major centre of Jewish life in Spain, it featured prominently in the country’s history as the port city at the crossroads of trade in Western Mediterranean.

Barcelona Haggadah, late C14th 

illuminated manuscript

British Museum

Catalonian Jews developed a unique identity and language, Judaeo-Catalan. Of the c4,000 Jews living in Bar­celona in the C13th, many worked as doctors, scientists, scholars, merchants or money lenders for Catalon­ia’s royals and aristocracy. The Jewish dist­rict was named El Call and was located in the middle of the Goth­ic Quarter, starting at the NW corner of Plaza St Jaume. Despite its hid­den nature, El Call was the heart of Spanish Jewish history.

Call Marlet, Wiki

ancient synagogue,  expanded in the C13th 

Walking through the Jewish Quarter’s very narrow streets, see a house which was ? where Rabbi Shlomo Ben Avraham ibn Aderet/the Rashba (1235-1310) had lived. He became a successful banker, schol­ar and rabbinical authority; then he was named the chief rabbi of Spain, serving in Barcelona’s Sinagoga Mayor for 50 years.

Near the cathedral was Palau Reial Major where the religious disputation of July 1263 took place before Span­ish King James I between Nachmanides/Rabbi Ramban & Pablo Cristiani. Nachmanides was initially Rabbi of Girona, and later became the chief rabbi of Catalonia. Cristiani was a Jew­ish convert who’d been encouraging other Jews to convert to Christ­ianity. He assured the king that he would prove the truth of Christ­ianity, from the Talmud and other rabbinical writings. The Ramban agreed and after 4 tough days of debating in front of the king and men of the chur­ch, King James dec­lared Nach­manides the victor. In fear Nachmanides fled the country, moved to Jerusalem and established the Ramban Synag­ogue.

A century before the Inquisition and expulsion across Spain, Barcelonians were subjected to pogroms. The Black Death ep­id­emic of 1348 provoked the slanderous accusation that the Jews had poisoned the water, so the call was attacked and Jews were murd­ered. But the most brutal pogrom was in 1391 - c3,000 Jews were mur­d­ered, Jewish cemet­er­­ies were vand­alised, and some of the grave­stones were embedded into the Cathedral of the Holy Cross and St Eulalia’s walls.

Barcelonians were endangered in 1391, but not all the Jews could escape. See the building where Jews were brought to be interrog­ated and tortu­red by the Inquisitors. Today this building houses the Mus­eum of the Barcelona Diocese, standing next to the Cath­edral’s Gothic walls.

Cathedral of the Holy Cross and Saint Eulalia

Wiki

 Only when the Jews were finally expelled in 1492 did the community leave behind its historical artefacts, abandoned synagogues and un­attend­ed cem­et­­er­ies. Now that those sites were re-examined, Bar­celona’s con­cealed Jewish history and archaeology have been re-rev­ealed. And recently researchers from Barcelona gained access to thousands of documents stored in Spanish Inqu­is­ition Dungeons. Through thorough archival examin­at­ion, they pieced together Barcelona’s stories. The result was a walking trek through local Jewish history, with a great historical map.

The space of Placa del Rei/Plaza of the King is surrounded by a sinister-looking building with archways and prison cell-like struc­t­ures. That was the square where the Inquisition did its work; Jews who refused to convert, or were caught practicing their true faith, were burned at the auto-da-fé. Many families really did convert to Catholicism, to be allowed to stay in Spain, and other families became Marranos (pretend Catholics).

Forever Barcelona recommends these tourists sites:
A] The ancient synagogue was C3rd or 4th. When Sinagoga May­or’s building was first ident­if­ied as an ancient shul, it was one of the oldest in Europe. The building measured only 60 square ms, because in Medieval Spain a synagogue could never be tal­l­er or bigger than the city’s smallest church. Sinag­oga Mayor reop­ened as a museum in 2002, offering a historical and architectural tour of the old synagogue.

B] The Museum of History of Barcelona opened in a med­ieval weaver home. The museum has two floors of very good displays of Jewish life in Barcelona including a glass floor over the Roman ruins under­ground. In the Medieval Section, see family and relig­ious ceramic objects that survived. The beautiful Barcelona Haggadah was produced in the C13th, showing the Laws of Passover, liturgical poems and Torah readings for Passover according to the Sephardi custom. The copy is in this Museum.

C] The towering rocky cliffs that look down on Barcelona, still cal­led Montjuïc/Mountain of the Jews, were once the site of a major Jewish cemetery. After this cemetery was abandoned, some tombstones near the stone quarries were used for sites in the Gothic Quarter.

D] Visitors can see preserved a few columns and arches, part of the medieval Mikveh/ritual bath in the Barcelona Jewish Quarter. It is now in the back of a modern furniture shop.

E] During the demolition of a Marlet St building in 1920, workers found medieval Hebrew inscriptions regarding Rabbi Samuel Hassardí.

For 500 years there were no Jews in the city, until the early C20th when an influx of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews moved from Nor­th Africa and Eastern Europe. National apologies for the medieval auto-da-fés and expulsions were slow. But finally Spain’s 2015 Citizenship Law allowed Jews to reclaim their Spanish citizen­ship.

 

Major Synagogue, built C6th

ruined in the 1391 riots

renovated and reopened in the 1990s. 

Edinburgh's 17th century Tron Kirk

Tron Kirk/Church was commissioned in Edinburgh by King Charles I from Scot­t­ish architect John Myle, as part of the plan to upgrade Edinburgh to city status. And it seems that the timing was critical. King Charles was try­ing to impose an Episcopal structure onto the reluctant Scottish Church. This was just after the bishopric designation of Edinburgh’s High Kirk St Giles in the royal charter of 1633.

Looking along the Royal Mile to Tron Kirk.

Furthermore the location was also significant. The North-West parish congreg­at­ion had been displaced by St Giles’ changing status, and they required a new home. So the new church was built on the Edinburgh's gorgeous Royal Mile.

As the building went up in the 1630s and 1640s, the architectural taste was mixed, reflecting both the cultural tastes and the politics of that period. The side of the Kirk facing Hunter Square looks like a Dutch church or town hall of the same era. Other parts of the building look Palladian, with strong Gothic elements.

Scottish Historic Buildings Trust

 

Change over the centuries was inevitable. For example, the Great Fire of Edinburgh in Nov 1824 ravaged Scotland’s capital. Ten lives were lost and hundreds of families made homeless due to the inferno. £200,000+ worth of damage was inflicted on the south side of Edinburgh’s Royal Mile which included the toppling of the Tron Kirk’s famous Dutch-influenced steeple. The current Tron Kirk steeple, which was a totally new design, was not created until 1828.

The church has been largely closed to the public since soon after WW2 and it was very fortunate to escape destruction. Plans to remove the church were regularly floated in order to improve traffic flow around the busy junction of the Bridges and the Royal Mile. Luckily for Tron Kirk, it became a key part of a large plan to restore the historic heart of the city. The goal was to bring unused heritage buildings back to life as cultural and arts venues.

A restoration programme commenced in 1974 and even then there was a surprise: work on the floor and foundations of the church uncovered the remnants of 16th century shops and dwellings on historic Marlin’s Close. Naturally the site soon became interesting to historians and archaeologists. The excavated remains of the medieval Marlin’s Close have now been glassed over, creating a unique and fascinating window into Edinburgh’s past.

The Kirk’s connections with Hogmanay were interesting. While the winter solstice was celebrated among the Norse in ancient times, the link to the Vikings’ celebration of Yule (then the Twelve Days of Christmas) might also have played a role. Perhaps these pagan winter festivities were not always popular with the stout Scottish clerics of the Protestant Reformation, but this changed. By the late C17th, various areas of Scotland were developing their own Hogmanay rituals including, or perhaps especially Edinburgh.   

                

Edinburgh Hogmanay, New Year's Eve

DanFlyingSolo

As a result, Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations these days are probably some of the best attended in the world. And in Dec 2012 the Tron Kirk was open, for three hectic days and nights, to people welcoming in the New Year. The title, A Festival of the Extraordinary: The Drambuie Surreal Sessions, might suggest that some alcohol was involved. However the goal was always to help secure the future of the Tron Kirk as a central arts and culture venue in Edinburgh.

Today Tron Kirk Market is run by the Scottish Design Exchange, the company who support local artists and designers. The market provides space for 21 local artists and designers, selling a range of handmade products eg pottery, jewellery, woodwork, original art and prints

Tron Kirk Market

The original stained glass windows are still protected.

The Conservation organisation, Edinburgh World Heritage, submit­ted the plans to the Edinburgh City Council to open a visitor centre in the church. Now approved, this visitor centre will explain the history of the capital's Old and New Towns from inside the 17th century site. Perfect.

Voltaire: writer living pre-Enlightenment

François Marie Arouet (1694-1778) was the son of a treas­ury of­ficial. In 1704, soon after his mother’s death, Arouet was sent to the Jesuit Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris for 7 years. He wrote poetry and performed in plays in Latin and French and when Arouet left Coll­ège at 17, the lad wanted to become a writer. Having already planned a law career for his son, dad forced Francois to be a lawyer’s assistant for two years, but the lad devoted his en­ergy to writing satirical poetry instead. So his father sent him to the country with marquis de Saint-Ange Louis de Caumartin, writing history.

When King Louis XIV died in 1715, Arouet went home. The king’s reign had been miserable, so things HAD to change for the bett­er, and he was welcomed into Paris’ literary society. In the Duchess of Maine's circle, Arouet again contributed to a libellous satirical poem ridic­ul­ing the Prince Regent Orleans. And as a result he was again exiled from Paris in May 1716! Was the young man truly reckless? Or just naïve?

Some "unacceptable" quotes by other writers were falsely ascribed to him, making him look worse. So soon he was back in Par­is’ infamous Bast­il­le prison. Inside he worked on a new play and this tragedy Oedipe was his 1st theatrical success. It was also in this prison that he began The Henr­iade, an ep­ic poem about Henry IV, and he adopted penname Voltaire. Voltaire was gaoled for a year for satirising politics & religion in La Henriade. Released in 1718, Oedipe was successfully perf­orm­ed in Paris, running for 45 nights estab­lish­ing Vol­taire’s fame as a great playwright at 23 and making money! And securing him a regent’s pension. In 1725 he conflicted with a powerful young nobleman, Chev­al­ier de Roh­an, who insulted Voltaire. Soon after, the writer was called outside while dining with a Duke and was beaten by Rohan’s thugs. Voltaire soon chall­enged Rohan to a duel, but was arrested that day and was thrown into the Bastil­le, again! 

copy of the pastel portrait of Voltaire, 1735

originally painted by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour

meisterdrucke

Af­ter prison Voltaire chose exile in Brit­ain for 3 years. New King George II was not a lit­erature fan, but Queen Caroline loved poetry and welcomed Voltaire into society. Quickly mastering English, he published The Henriade in English, dedicated to the Queen. And befriended a stimul­at­ing group eg Prime Min Sir Robert Walpole, Lord Boling­­broke, poet Alexander Pope & playwr­ight William Congreve. And he read the work of two of the great think­ers of the C17th: natural scient­ist Isaac New­ton and phil­os­oph­er John Locke.

In Britain Voltaire produced 2 works: Essay Upon Epic Poetry and Essay Upon the Civil Wars in France in 1727. He wrote that humans con­troll­ed their own des­t­iny, rejecting the idea that Divine Inter­vention guided history. After he'd been im­p­ressed by Britain’s free­dom of speech & religious tol­erance, Voltaire returned home in 1729 and saw the UK’s constitut­ional mon­archy as the more progressive. It was easy pub­lish­ing Lett­ers Concerning the Eng­lish Nation in Eng­lish (1733), but pub­lishing the Letters in French was not. The publ­isher was sent to prison and the book was burned publicly.

Voltaire met brilliant mathem­at­ician-scientist Emilie de Breteuil marquise du Châtelet in 1733 and at her invitation the wr­iter moved to Cirey in E France. There they began their 16-year affair. They were a perfect Enlighten­ment couple working together, stud­ying natural sciences, performing their own lab ex­periments, studying history and philosophy. They collected and studied 21,000+ books. Mme du Châtelet’s translation of Newton’s Principia and Volt­aire’s Elements of Newton’s Philosophy were key to in­tro­ducing the new natural philosophy ideas to the Continent
                                                       

Mahomet the Prophet, a five-act tragedy

by Voltaire, 1736.

Wiki

In 1740-9 Voltaire moved between Brussels, Cirey and Paris. His most successful play in the 1740s was Mahomet the Prophet, playing in Lille and then Paris. This study of religious fanaticism por­trayed Mohammed as a power-hungry intrig­ue but Cath­olic clergy saw it as a veiled attack on Christian fanat­ic­ism and burn­ed the book. So Vol­taire asked the Pope for his consent to dedicate Mohammed to him. By then many Frenchmen hailed Voltaire as the greatest writer; he was placed in Germany’s Hall of Fame and was elected a mem­ber of Britain’s Royal Society. But the Ac­ad­émie Fran­çaise rejec­t­ed him again. Only in 1746, with the King and the Pope behind him, was Voltaire fin­al­ly admitted.

Château de Voltaire à Ferney

Voltaire rebuilt the castle entirely from 1758.

Tiqets

Earlier Voltaire received a letter from Frederick Prince of Prussia, starting a long correspondence. In Sept 1749 Madame du Châtelet died in childbirth, devastating Voltaire. So eventually he accepted the invitation of the then-King Frederick to move. The move failed and after 2 years Voltaire was granted leave, leaving Potsdam 1753. Voltaire bought a stylish country house near Geneva in 1754. Having some weal­th then, he built a priv­ate thea­tre but Geneva had a law forbidding theatrical perf­orm­ances. In late 1758 he bought an extensive property on Lake Geneva at Ferney. There he spent his last 20 years, entertaining so­ciety and producing fine works.

The irr­ev­erent Cand­ide (1759) was a witty romance, but also a clear attack on France’s religious philosoph­y. 5 years after Candide, Voltaire published his greatest philosophical writings, Philosophical Dictionary in 1764 where the ideal religion taught morality & rej­ected dogma. Naturally his book was condemned in Paris, Amsterdam and Geneva!!

Candide

published in 1759

In 1778 after 20 years in Ferney, Voltaire longed to return to Paris. He had completed his last work, the tragedy Irene, its first per­formance being at Paris’ National Theatre. His niece-lover Madame Denis was also very keen to return home so they set out, arriving to a hero’s wel­come. The 83 year old man prepared for the opening of Irene, but became seriously ill and soon died. The Church refused to give Voltaire a Christian burial, so his body was taken secretly to an abbey in Champagne and buried.

Voltaire was the perfect Enlightenment man, spending much of his adult career in prison or exile. Alas Vol­taire's France was one in which the monarchy, nobility & clergy dominated. It was an era of book burning and imprison­ment by the ruling class. Ironically the time the French Re­volution began 11 years after Vol­taire died, ideas of universal humanity were popular and only then could Voltaire’s liter­at­ure and campaigning against injustice be truly valued.

Jewish Toledo - Spain's finest & worst eras

Toledo, capital city of Old Castile, started with the Romans. Jews have lived there at least since the C6th; in 589 CE, Council of Tol­edo pro­hibited Jews from marrying Christ­ians, hold­ing public of­f­ice or own­ing Christian serv­ants. Clearly the Jews suffered greatly under Ch­rist­ian­ity, especially when the 8th Toledo Council created even worse anti­-Semitic leg­islation in 652 CE. The rift between the two commun­ities led the Jews to befriend the new conquerors in the Muslim conquest of Toledo in 715 CE.

Facade of the Synagogue and Sefardi Museum

In 1252 King Alfonso X captured Toledo and declared it Christian again, yet this time he ensured that the Jews were treated as eq­u­als. Many Jews migrated to Toledo and rose to prom­inence, in pol­it­ics and government. Alfonso even named a Jewish physician as his royal appointment.

By mid-C13th, Toledo’s Archbishop grew concerned by the fin­an­cial and political prominence of the Jewish community, so he impos­ed a tax and housing tithe on every adult Jew. This didn’t work, since by 1290 nearly half of the town’s resources was still own­ed by Jews!

The commun­ity leader was the community’s rabbi; in 1305 Tol­edo Jews chose the learned nobleman Asher Ben Jehiel Abulafia (d1328) to lead them. In 1320 Samuel Ha-Levi Abulafia was born, the Abulafias having led the Jewish comm­unity in Castile for decades. Sadly Samuel’s parents died of the plague, and as Samuel was too young to inherit their legacy, he was app­ren­t­iced to the Knight Juan Alfonso instead. Samuel rose quickly in society un­til he found vit­al positions in King Ped­ro I of Castile’s court. Samuel became town Mayor, Treasurer and fin­ally High Judge. It was as Treas­urer when he chose to build a synag­og­ue.

Toledo already had 10 synagogues, including Spain’s largest, but this one was Samuel’s own special house of worship. In 1357 the new synagogue opened, with Samuel Ab­ul­afia leading the prayers. To thank his comm­un­ity, Sam­uel also opened the synagogue as a hub for Jew­ish education. Note that in the C14th, Spain had actually decreed a ban on all new Jew­ish educat­ional institutes and synagogues. How­ev­er Sa­m­­uel’s close rel­at­ion­ship with King Pedro meant it was ok. Was it a royal apology for the persecution that Jews had faced in Toledo in the 1348 Black Death?

Samuel Abulafia ignored the regulations requiring synag­og­ues to be under-decorated and smaller than churches. The lav­ish­ly decorated rect­angular prayer hall had a 12m ceiling where Heb­rew in­sc­riptions ext­ol­led both King Pedro and Samuel Ha-Levi. Arabic inscript­ions and Psalm passages were also on the walls, next to the family coat of arms and fine windows. Over 2nd floor women's gallery,  the arches were layers of low-relief stucco tendrils, round­­­els, scallop shells, geometric interlacing & rows of blind arches.

The façade was built of brick and stone and was unad­orned, in order to draw less public attention. Only the tow­ering roof raised the whole synagogue above nearby structures.

Inside Sefardi Museum

 

This house was an active place of worship for many years, but anti-Semitism reappeared. Samuel Ha-Levi Abulafia set out to pro­tect Jewish rights and freed­oms, but as the rift between the two men grew, King Pedro no longer de­f­ended him. Samuel was arrested on corr­up­tion and tortured to death. De­s­pite grow­ing attacks on Tol­ed­o’s Jewish com­munity, his house and synagogue rem­ain­ed, presumably from self-interest; it would be converted to a church.

By 1492, the Jews were given a final ultimatum: the Catholic monar­chs of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, iss­ued the Alhambra Decree which gave Spanish Jews the choice to 1] con­v­ert to Catholicism, 2] leave Spain voluntarily or 3] be expelled. This Royal Decree showed their belief that the Jews’ presence was a threat to Spain’s relig­ious and cultural identity. The exp­ul­sion marked the end to centur­ies of Jew­ish pres­ence in their beloved Spain, and led to their forced mig­rat­­ion to Europe, North Africa and the Ottoman Empire.

As no Jews remained in Toledo, the synagogue was turned into a ch­urch; Ferd­inand and Isabella donated the building to the Order of Cal­atrava who made it a Benedictine priory. The name El Transito, honour­ing the Virgin Mary’s Assumption, was given to the building as a church. Ironically the name today is still Synag­ogue El Transito. Artist Juan Correa de Viv­ar paint­ed a mural of Mary’s Virgin Transit over the original Je­w­­ish wall engr­avings, but Vivar’s canvases were later moved and preserved.

El Transito remained a church until the Sp­anish War of Independence against Napoleon broke out in 1808. Despite heavy resistance, 10,000+ French troops and horses took up resid­ence in Toledo. The Spanish fought back, and the defens­ive lines of both arm­ies often fell there. The Spanish revolutionaries and fighters needed barr­acks, and the spacious Church of El Transito was perfect.

Beautiful Old Toledo and the Tagus river

Things to do in Toledo

Although other heritage sites were lost in battle, by late in the war the synagogue-church-mil­itary barracks had become a symbol of Spain’s succ­ess and indep­endence. Surprisingly (to me) their mil­itary prowess meant El Transito Church became a National Monument.

In the C19th, Spanish Jewish communities began to slowly re­build. So historians and world heritage staff explored the site, and re­cog­nis­ed how important it had once been for the Jewish comm­un­ity. First they res­tored the holy Torah Ark. 14 latt­ices required fix­ing and the Hebrew inscrip­tions had to be carefully restored, letter by letter. Then work on interior walls and the women’s gallery.

Women's gallery on the first floor

Arturo Mélida y Alinari was head architect of the project, focusing on the old roof and outside walls. Before WW1 it was gifted to the commun­ity as a Museum of Sephardi Culture & His­t­ory. A deb­ate arose over whether to also restore the church feat­ures, and eventually they decided to pay homage to the church years. Thus the choir stage and other Christian features were returned to their former glory. Lastly some new features were added to the site eg a large Jewish library and a new Centre for Hebrew Studies.

Main prayer hall in the old synagogue

facing the Holy Arc with velvet curtain and Torah scrolls

The Sefardí Museum was created in 1964, located in the key medieval Hispanic-Jewish building in Spain. Now called the Nat­ional Museum of Hispanic-Jewish Art, the museum opened to the pub­lic, the rooms occ­upying the old ar­chive of the mil­itary ord­ers. The exh­ibition dis­plays Jewish cult­ure in Spain, from before the tragic expul­sion to the development of the Sephardic communities across the world. Many thanks to Mia Amran, and to my daughters-in-law whose parents came from Sephardi Damascus and Alexandria.

Intricately patterned wooden ceiling and stucco decoration

 Location of Toledo in Spain

Credit for the images: Sinagoga El Transito

UK's C19th model village: Saltaire

Titus Salt (1803-76) was born near Leeds, educated in Wakefield and served an apprenticeship with a wool-stapler in Wakefield. He moved to Bradford in 1821 with his parents & siblings at 18. In his years in Bradford he worked with William Rouse & Son, learning textile manufacture.

Titus’s father, Daniel, founded a Bradford business as a wool-stapler. In 1824, Titus joined his dad’s business, Daniel Salt and Son, expanding with a spinning business in Thornton Rd in 1834. By then Bradford was a magnet for people seeking work or a business; the city experienced a 78% population growth in 30 years due to the raw-wool-cloth industry. Alas Bradford mills flooded untreated industrial waste. 

Mill, Tripadvisor

In 1835 Titus Salt established his own business. He’d already used Eastern European wool and had secretly experimented with alpaca wool. By 1837 he found that by using alpaca as the weft, and cotton as the warp, he could produce fairly priced, durable lustrous cloth. He was the first maker of the new cloth & greatly expanded his Bradford business.

But to escape the polluted, crowded Bradford slums for greener pastures, he decided to relocate his business and his employees. Local architects Henry Lockwood & Richard Mawson planned a new community where Salt’s work force would be healthier, happier and productive. Work began in 1851 and continued for decades. Salt planned for a wide range of public buildings and amenities, so work soon started on Saltaire’s industrial community. In Aug 1854 Lockwood & Mawson hired contractors in the local press to erect a large dining hall opposite the mill with offices & kitchen. The Dining Hall fed the mill’s workforce, who lived outside.

The vast efficient textile factory was the first building done. Moved by Bradford workers’ poor lives and his religion, Salt created an industrial town in rural surroundings, named from Salt and from the River Aire in the village.

Titus purchased land near Shipley and the Mill opened with fanfare Sept 1853, Salt’s 50th birthday. The mill took in raw materials, to scour, wash, comb, draw, spin and weave, design and finish them into high quality cloth. Its 3,000 workers could produce 30,000 yards of cloth daily.

Workers' cottages, Wiki

 
Then they designed the entire village in a classical style a la Italian Renaissance. The Salts Mill and the decent houses were built from 1851-71 to allow workers to live decently, locating a large textile mill near Leeds-Liverpool Canal & railway; thus his raw materials and finished goods could be easily moved. Salt planned his workers’ village with public buildings that looked impressive and well designed for purpose. Lockwood & Mawson planned a new community where Salt’s workforce would be healthier, happier & productive. Work began 1851, until 1876. A vast and modern textile factory, the Mill, was ready first - Lockwood & Mawson designed it all. The finest work was Congregational Church, set in a spacious landscaped garden. The new church was opened in Ap 1859, a precious Victorian gem. It boasts important architectural and historical features; now the United Reformed Church is set in landscaped gardens.

Congregational Church, and later United Reformed Church 

Real Yorkshire Blog

In 1886 Titus Salt Jr proposed an Arts Exhibition that could raise funds for a new building for Art-Science education & to honour dad. The Exhibition Building was completed in 1887. It housed 14 large class rooms, central hall and gallery:  Institute of Technology and now a site for Shipley College.

The Mausoleum built onto the church has Titus' remains. Although a committed Congregationalist, Titus was not restrictive about religious worship in his town. He didn't compel his workforce to attend a church. In Oct 1866, laying a stone for a new Wesleyan Chapel was celebrated. 

Factory School, opened 1868

now Shipley College Salts Building, x.com

The lofty hall gave space for the Factory School, church services, Sunday school, reading room & library. There was space for 500+ to attend social events, concerts, lectures on current issues & celebrations. The Factory Schools opened in 1868 on Victoria Rd, for 750 people. The classrooms had central heating, gas lighting and fitted cupboards.

Playgrounds behind the schools included covered areas for bad weather. Titus and his son Titus Jr were modern thinkers in establishing quality education, but the new school’s capacity was soon insufficient to meet children's needs. Space was made available for art and science education in the Saltaire Club and Institute opposite the schools.

Victoria Hall, Alarmy

Salt Schools on Victoria Rd, Institute and Victoria Hall were built by John Barry, opening 1871. The facilities were huge, containing a lecture hall seating 800, classrooms, 2 art rooms, chess rooms, laboratory, gym, library of 8,500 books, reading room and concert venue; their task was to provide a social club and an educational institute to supply the advantages of a public house without its evils. Its ornamental belltower is seen throughout the village. Titus was keen to see adults self-improving. Building the Factory Schools was followed by a grand project opposite the new school.

Salt Hospital, with hospital marker under top window

later converted to flats

2 storeyed Salt Hospital in Victoria Rd had an Infirmary and Dispensary, 6 beds and a surgery. As demand for its services grew, it began to provide treatment for the local community plus for mill workers, closing in 1979 to become flats.

The residential area covered 25+ acres, eventually consisting of 21 streets, 2 roads, 2 terraces & 4 places. 850 quality houses of varying sizes (2-7 bedrooms) were built in William Henry St, house occupancy dependant on ability to pay the graded rents. The houses ranged widely, all superior to working-class houses in nearby Bradford & Shipley. They had a proper drainage system; water & gas were supplied to each house, and each had a back yard and a private toilet. The streets were open-ended to let in sun and air. The shops included grocers, chemist, post office, butchers, hardware shops and retail facilities. Once complete, the village comprised 800+ high quality homes, two churches, school, park, adult education institute, hospital, baths, washhouse and 45 almshouses for the aged or infirmed, fronted by a peaceful trees and plants. Almhouse residents were selected by Salt in his lifetime and later by a board of trustees: these tenants lived rent free and received a weekly pension. 

Salt later improved conditions eg impressive Victoria Rd School site 1869. Rich outer architecture honoured educ-ation and the classes suited the 750 pupils. This big building was soon outgrown by Saltaire’s booming population. The Salt family lobbied for a new school and by 1878 it had been built. Not as charming, but big enough to cope with demand. This school is now part of Shipley College, Victoria Rd. Its Italianate richly carved architecture has columned loggias, round-topped windows, overhanging eaves, turret & school bell. The centre displays Salt’s coat of arms in a roundel surrounded by laurel leaves, scrolls and relief carvings. The school was for workers’ children, parks, boats and games. Leisure activities included a boys’ drum-&-fife band and brass band for village men. Titus Jr & wife strongly wanted education for the under-5s, leading to a separate pre-school.

With quality housing, employment, recreation, educational facilities and social services, the model town became an example of progressive C19th urban planning. The building was nearly done in 1871 when the census showed Saltaire had 755 houses and 45 alms houses, for 4,389 people.

Titus died in 1876 and was interred in the mausoleum beside the Congregational church. When his son Titus Salt Jr died in 1887, Saltaire was taken over by a partnership including Sir James Roberts from Haworth. Roberts had worked in wool mills since he was 11, had sizable business interests in Russia. Roberts came to own Saltaire, but chose to invest his money heavily in Russia, losing much money in the Russian Revolution. He endowed a chair of Russian at Leeds Uni and bought the Brontës' Haworth Parsonage for the nation. Roberts died in 1935 and was buried at Fairlight Sussex.

Saltaire Park, later Roberts Park

National Lottery Heritage Fund

Saltaire Park across the River Aire opened in C19th, designed and laid out by William Gay. The name changed in 1920 to Roberts Park when the second owner, Sir James Roberts, gifted the park to the local Council to honour his late son. The park, a key element of the model village, offered many leisure activities for the worker eg archery, croquet, cricket and pavilions. The northern portion has windy paths, landscaped gardens, pavilions, East Park lodge, promenade with shelters and Salt’s statue. And the original bandstand.

Saltaire retained ownership of the Mill until it was sold to Bradford Property Trust, 1933. The new owners arranged with Shipley Urban District Council for improvements eg new gas services, mains electricity, sewerage & sanitary services. It included a scheme to eliminate the waste-water toilets and the old type of coal store, and to erect new facilities, requiring the removal of 43 houses to open the village. In 2014 planning officers replaced front doors for historic ones.

Saltaire was selected for the World Heritage List in Dec 2001 and Europe’s Route of Industrial Heritage website as a fine example of a C19th model town demonstrating the social and economic impact of the textile industry. And it was recognised for its global influence on town planning. The model village’s buildings are individually listed with UNESCO, the highest honour going to Congregational church. UNESCO protects natural and cultural sites of global importance.

Salts Mill closed Feb 1986; Jonathan Silver bought it in 1987 to convert into a multi-functional site with an art gallery, cafes & technology company HQs. The art gallery had large rooms for Bradford-born artist David Hockney: paintings, drawings, photos, stagesets. Then book shops, art supplies, jewellery, sportswear, antiques, bicycles and housewares.

The Saltaire Collection in Shipley College has special books, documents, photos & historical objects. Note the research into residents/workers, the Salt & James Roberts families who built and sustained Salts Mill; photos & documents related to working in the mill and living in the village; legal and business documents; personal memoirs; maps; and crockery for Royal visits. The History Club has great lectures.

Saltaire, on the map of England

Credit: Salt & Light

In 2003 Saltaire Festival celebrated the city’s 150th anniversary, now held in Sept; Saltaire Arts Trail is a visual arts festival held in May. Credit to City of Bradford.

a dream city for tourists: Palermo

 

A 2023 survey by Travel + Leisure invited readers to vote on the world’s most beautiful cities. Clearly the answer differed for everyone, but see their non-exhaustive list of the world’s 25 most beautiful cities. I chose Palermo.

transport from Southern Italy to Sicily

On Sicily's Nth coast the sunny city is a dream for archit­ect­ure fans, right on the Mediterranean's cross roads. Palermo shows a striking mix of architectural styles, after centuries of conquest & differing cultural influences, a rich history of local civilisations. It changed from a Carthaginian stronghold to a Roman province, reaching its cultural peak in Arab rule (831–1072) and then Christian Norman conquerors, creating the unique Arab-Norman architectural style seen now.

Palermo has many fine museums, Sicily's Regional Gallery being housed in a stunning C15th Gothic-Catalan palace and containing iconic works of medieval and Renaissance art. Separately Palermo noted that a Goddess Artemis fragment be­l­ong­­ing to the Parthenon’s east­ern frieze on loan from Sic­ily’s Archaeol­og­ical Museum will remain in Ath­ens. And the Vatican will return Marble fragments from the Vatican Museums, with papal donations

Royal Norman Palace of the Kings of Sicily created in C12th, had the beautiful Palatine Chapel in its 2nd floor. Inside the chapel is decorated with beautiful golden mosaics, and the ceiling is very different from any other Christian church. Carved wood in an Islamic style. Tickets to the Norman Palace include entry to Palatine Chapel, Royal Apartments, Royal Gardens and special exhibitions. 

Palermo Cathedral, built 1185, was built on a Byzantine Church. See the architectural styles that reflect the long history of additions & renovations to the cathedral. In a chapel, right of the altar, lies St Rosalie, patron saint of Palermo. And see the tomb of Blessed Father Puglisi, Mafia-killed. Entry to the cathedral is free except for a visit to the rooftop for great views over the city and to the royal tombs.

The Arab-Norman architectural style features unique blends of Islamic domes & Byzantine mosaics. Palace of the Normans is a striking gold-stone example of the Arab-Norman style and home to Sicily's regional parliament,  a C9th palace representing one of Europe's most ancient royal residences. And the Palatine Chapel, completed in 1142 is one of Europe's great artistic treasures with stunning Byzantine mosaics covering the walls and ceiling.

Built from 1875-97, Teatro Massimo is the largest Opera House in Italy and 3rd largest and most celebrated after Paris & Vienna Operas. Tea­t­ro Mass­imo’s copper dome is c250’ over the piazza bel­ow. From the roof­top, see the city’s terracotta skyline in the early evening.

Quattro Canti Square/Piazza Vigliena is the centre of Palermo’s historic quarter, lined with 4 Baroque buildings. Tourists can see beautiful opera performances in the square, a famous Baroque intersection that beautifully divides the historic city into 4 distinct quarters. It is an architectural marvel of squares, with baroque beauty & intricate details. Each corner is a masterpiece, with the baroque statues representing the Four Seasons. 

C16th nude sculptures at the Piazza Pretoria

 

Near Quattro Canti is Praetorian Fountain, built in Florence in C16th. When the owner lost money, he sold the fountain to the City. The fountain was broken into hundreds of pieces and shipped to Palermo to be reassembled. Because of the totally nude statues, and a convent looking out onto the fountain, it was called the Square of Shame. 

teatro massimo

Norman Palace

Palatine Chapel

Porta Nuova/New Gate next to the Norman palace was built when Holy Roman Emperor Charles V came to the Kingdom of Sicily in 1536 and crossed the arched entrance to Palermo. To honour the event, New Gate was completed in 1584, later destroyed by fire and then rebuilt more elaborately by the City Senate as the triumphal arched gateway leading to the oldest street, Cassaro.

Porta Nuova 

Like Rome's Church of the Capuchin Monks, where there are bodies & bones arranged into art, the Capuchin Catacombs in Palermo opened 1599, to avoid throwing all the dead brothers into a mass grave. Originally only Capuchin friars were entombed in the catacombs, but in C17th & 18ths, it was a way for people to show their wealth and power. There are 2000+ mummified bodies in the catacombs now, dating to C16th-early C20th. Men were embalmed and put on display in their clothes, remarkably well preserved, as are their intact hair and skin. There's NO photography in this eerie historical site. 

Capuchin catacombs

The World of Sicily

Ballaro Market is the one of the oldest street-markets in Italy & Palermo’s largest. Fish, meat, fruit & vegetables are available, complete with plenty of street food stalls. Loud and crowded, the stall holders can be very vocal advertising their produce and the atmosphere in the passionate street-life surrounds its historical outdoor markets like Arabic souks. il Capo Market is smaller and quieter than Ballaro, primarily a fish market and also has plenty of street foodstalls. The best time to visit is in the morning since many stalls close after lunch. la Vucciria Market Square in Sicilian means chaos, an apt description for this small square with its fish restaurants and food trucks. 

Gorgeous coffee shops in the small lanes

A train runs from Naples to Sicily then drives onto the ferry, by day or on overnight sleepers. Or fly to Falcone-Borsellino Airport from several European cities or get a connecting flight via Rome. If driving to Sicily by car, vehicle ferries travel from different mainland ports to Messina, Sicily’s primary transit hub.

Summer is peak season but winter is the best time to visit when the mild weather is great for walking around the city. All the attractions are open, and there are smaller crowds! The only issue might be the fewer daylight hours in winter. Near the Norman Palace, relax in the Gardens of the Villa Bonnano with palms and citrus trees, offering relief from the city’s action. And Mondello Beach is just a short distance from the city centre, an iconic coastline with pure water and stunning Mediterranean views. Although Palermo was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015, and since I've only spent one day there, I gratefully thank Nigel and Sue Adventures.